The Validation of the Self-Determination Inventory: Student Report (SDI:SR) Japanese Translation with High School Students with Intellectual Disability

Self-Determination Research across the World

Internationally, there has been a strong interest in measuring self-determination to inform planning and delivering educational and disability support services for people with intellectual disability. This highlights that although the development and expression of self-determination is influenced by cultural factors, the basic promise of self-determination is universally valued (Hagiwara, 2021). Since the SDI:SR was developed and validated in English, it has been translated and validated in American Sign Language, Spanish, French, Chinese, and Portuguese (Garberoglio et al., 2022, Moreira et at., in press; Mumbardó-Adam, 2018a; Shogren et al., 2024; Xu et al., 2022). Across the studies, the work highlights that the SDI:SR is the most current and inclusive assessment and aligns with national initiatives related to education of students with intellectual disability and other developmental disabilities across the world (e.g., Moreira et at., in press; Xu et al., 2022).

Highlighting the diversity of work that has been conducted, the Spanish translation of the SDI:SR was initially validated with youth with and without intellectual and developmental disabilities and construct validity for all 21 items was established. However, the French translation, Shogren et al. (2024) found that 20 of the 21 items were feasible and valid for use in students with and without disabilities from regions in multiple countries (e.g., Canada, Switzerland) where French is the primary language. Additionally, on the French translation, students with disabilities scored lower on the SDI:SR than students without disabilities. In China, Xu et al. (2022) established construct validity for youth with and without intellectual and developmental disabilities with 20 items, with more variability in the self-determination scores of the youth with intellectual and developmental disabilities than youth without disabilities (Xu et al., 2022). Data from all three translated versions of the SDI:SR showed the best fit to a one-factor model, with overall self-determination as the sole latent factor.

However, as noted, some items and their loadings on the overall self-determination construct have demonstrated misfit across cultures. Two items in particular include, “I choose what my room looks like” and “I know my strengths.” This suggests the need to carefully establish the validity and reliability of translated items, as there can be cultural differences that may influence the relevance of the items. With this consideration, however, a consistent finding has been the reliability and validity of translations of the SDI:SR in measuring self-determination among students with and without disabilities. Furthermore, this body of research underscores the universal importance of valuing self-determination for children and youth with intellectual disability across the world, while also highlighting the need for specific studies across cultures and contexts, particularly when translation activities are being undertaken. Therefore, the goal of this paper was to specifically examine the items on the SDI:SR Japanese transition in youth with intellectual disability to examine its cross-cultural analysis of self-determination, aligned with early work in other language and cultural contexts (Mumbardó-Adam et al., 2018b; Shogren et al., 2018a).

Self-Determination in the Japanese Educational Context

In Japan, there is a long history of learning and translating educational assessments and evidence-based practices from the U.S. because “American policies, theories, and practices are built on human dignity, rights, and democracy, values that most Japanese scholars share” (Ohtake & Wehmeyer, 2004, p. 169). For example, in the field of special education, Japan has adopted the Individualized Education Program (IEP) mandated under the U.S. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), and special education teachers must develop Kobetsu Shido Kekaku [Individualized Instructional Plans]. As facilitating active student involvement in developing and delivering the IEPs as a means of promoting self-determination has received attention as an evidence-based practice within the U.S. special education context, interest in self-determination has grown among Japanese scholars. Japanese scholars have reviewed applications of the theory and practice of self-determination from the United States to the Japanese context (Ohtake & Wehmeyer, 2004; Teshima, 2003) as well as discussed aspects of self-determination (e.g., choice-making, intrinsic motivation). However, this body of work is limited and has not significantly grown since the 2000s.

On the contrary, the National Guidelines for the Course of Study updated by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT, 2017-2019) lay out national curriculum standards and prompts career education that includes specific skills related to self-determination (e.g., self-awareness, decision making, goal setting). To ensure the implementation of the same quality education throughout Japan, every teacher and school is required to follow the national guidelines, and embedding self-determination in daily instruction is explicitly expected. However, while Japanese special education teachers recognize the importance of self-determination, they are often uncertain about how to apply such requirements in their daily instruction, especially when they teach students with intellectual disability. Further, the lack of validated self-determination assessments, teaching strategies, and interventions means there are not robust strategies for teachers to adopt (Miyano & Hosoya, 2021). In fact, recent research exploring the perceptions of self-determination among Japanese special education teachers working with students with intellectual disability, suggests that while teachers were familiar with the term “self-determination,” they lacked clarity on its conceptual and operational definitions (Maebara et al., 2023). Specifically, teachers tended to associate self-determination with promoting “determination” of their students. However, validated theories of self-determination adopt a more expansive definition defining self-determination as a dispositional characteristic while acting as a causal agency by making decisions and engaging in problem-solving across multiple life domains, requiring multi-component and sustained instruction and supports. Additionally, teachers cited a variety of barriers when tasked with implementing instructional practices to promote self-determination. For example, teachers emphasized lack of time during the school day and lack of knowledge of effective teaching strategies as reasons why their values on self-determination were not effectively translated into practice in their classrooms.

Additionally, while students with intellectual disability are expected to gain career-related skills and knowledge aligned with the national curriculum standards at each education level, career pathways after exiting special education high school are already pre-determined and limited for Japanese students with intellectual disability. In 2023, after exiting special education high school, about 29% of young adults with intellectual disability obtained a job in integrated settings while about 34% of them were enrolled in sheltered work programs or adult day programs (Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare, n.d.). Responding to the current status of heavy reliance of welfare-based employment opportunities, starting in October 2025, a new disability welfare service called Shuurou Sentaku Shien [Employment Choice Support] will be introduced. This service will be implemented as an initial step before utilizing welfare-based employment services, and it aims to support people with disabilities in their career choices and decisions by implementing the results obtained through employment assessments (Maebara, 2024).

Purpose of this Study and Research Questions

There is an increasing focus on exploring career interests and promoting self-determination of students with intellectual disability in Japan. Validated assessments that can guide instruction and support will be needed to enable people with intellectual disability to express their career visions and interests and make choices and seek to attain personalized employment and life goals. Special education teachers in Japan will play a key role in this new service change, as they are responsible for the education of students with intellectual disability in secondary schools that serve this population. However, currently, there is no validated self-determination assessment available in Japanese for students with intellectual disability. Although self-determination develops across the life course, adolescence is a critical period during which young people learn to act as causal agents as they navigate transition from high school to adulthood. This phase can present unique opportunities, challenges, and barriers, particularly for high school students with intellectual disability living in Japan (Hagiwara et al., 2024). This is because unlike in the United States, where students receiving special education services can receive support through age 21, Japan does not have a comparable national system. Therefore, it is urgent for special education stakeholders, including students and teachers, to have access to a valid measure of self-determination to effectively design instruction that supports the development of self-determination (Maebara et al., 2023; Ohtake & Wehmeyer, 2004).

As such, the purpose of this study is to validate the Japanese translation of the SDI:SR for high school students with intellectual disability in Japan who are expected to be ready for transition to career after high school. We were particularly interested in establishing the validity of the scale for this population, as well as examining the impact of gender and the level of support on self-determination assessment, as in Japan and other contexts, gender often shapes career options and pathways as can level of support. For example, support needs can influence the career pathways adolescents with intellectual disability are directed to (e.g., sheltered work programs vs. integrated employment) in Japan and other countries. The following research questions guided this study:

1. What is the factor structure of the SDI:SR Japanese and to what extent do the translated items adequately measure students’ with intellectual disability self-determination?

2. Does measurement invariance of the SDI:SR Japanese hold across gender groups for students with intellectual disability?

3. Are there differences in latent means across gender groups?

4. Does measurement invariance of the SDI:SR Japanese hold across support level groups?

5. Are there differences in latent means based on students’ level of support?

Participants and Setting

After receiving institutional review board approval from one of the co-authors’ universities, participants were recruited using an informational flyer and consent forms. In the process of recruitment, we collaborated with a special education high school designated as an education research site by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) (2017–2019). This school is a public school, and enrollment is limited to students with intellectual disability who reside within the commutable distance. This school aims to provide students with intellectual disability with instruction and training to prepare them for competitive, integrated employment after graduation. While teachers, parents, and students at this school had already agreed to participate in research studies in general, all participants in this study were explicitly informed about the specific purpose of this study, what their participation would involve, and their right to withdraw at any time. We strictly followed the school’s process to review and agree to partner in the current research activities. Additionally, this high school has been focusing on implementing a school-wide curriculum that promotes career development since 2016 and recognized that the SDI:SR could be a tool to assess potential growth in self-determination based on the school-wide efforts; therefore, they agreed to use it with all enrolled students. The study procedures were carried out by the high school teachers, who were familiar with the students. This approach ensured that students could ask questions and raise concerns as needed as they completed the SDI:SR Japanese translation, creating a supportive and accessible environment for participation. Since each student was assigned a computer at school, they completed the SDI:SR on their devices, mostly independently, although students asked for clarification of certain words or terms used in the items on the SDI:SR.

In Japan, the diagnosis of intellectual disability is made based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Students need to have the diagnosis to be enrolled in the special education high school. High school education in Japan includes three grades, corresponding to the participants’ age range of 15 to 18 years, with a mean age of 16.68 years (SD = 1.54) in this study. The sample size of 259 represents the total number of students enrolled at the school during data collection. Out of the total participants, 184 participants (71%) identified as male, 61 (24%) as female, and 14 participants (5%) preferred not to report their gender identity. Participants were also asked to rate the level of support they felt that they needed throughout the day. The options were: (a) no support needed (24; 9%); (b) a little support needed (162; 64%); (c) a lot of support needed (58; 23%); and (d) support needed all of the time (9; 4%). Overall, 253 (98%) of students reported the level of support needed. Students with missing data on gender (n = 14) or support needs (n = 6) were excluded from analyses for these research questions; however, all data (N = 259) was used in the other analyses as all students completed all the items on the SDI:SR Japanese.

Measures

Data Analysis

All data analysis was performed in the lavaan package using R, which can be used to estimate a large variety of multivariate statistical models, including path analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation modeling and growth curve models (Rosseel, 2012).

Research Question 1: Factor Structure

We employed confirmatory factor analyses (CFA; Bollen, 1989) in order to assess the construct validity of the measure. The CFA model allows a latent (unobservable) trait to be analyzed based on the shared variance of each observed item. This measurement model includes parameters such as the factor loadings ( ${\lambda }_i;$where ${\lambda }_i^2\psi$ is the shared variance for each item $i$), residual errors ( ${ϵ}_{ij}$; whose variance is the portion of the total variance of the item $i$ that is unexplained by the model), latent variance for individual $j$ ( ${\eta }_j$; whose variance $\psi$ is the extent to which the unobservable trait varies in this sample), the latent variable means ( $\alpha$; the average level of the unobservable trait in this sample) and the item level intercepts ( ${\tau }_i$; the expected score for each item when the latent variable is set to zero). In this model, we fixed the latent variance to one ( $\psi =1$), which allowed each factor loading to be estimated freely.

Specifically, we tested both a single-factor CFA model with a single latent variable (self-determination) and a three-factor CFA model with three latent variables (volitional action, agentic action, and action-control beliefs). Based on previous research on the validity of the SDI:SR (Raley et al., 2018; Shogren et al., 2019), we hypothesized that a single-factor model would best fit the data, as established in SDI:SR validation studies in other languages (Mumbardó-Adam et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2022). In order to assess model fit, we conducted the ${\chi }^2$ test of exact fit as well as other approximate fit indices, including the comparative fit index (CFI; Bentler, 1990), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger & Lind, 1980), the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR; Bentler, 1995), and the Tucker Lewis index (TLI; Tucker & Lewis, 1973). Although the various thresholds for good model fit have been debated, we followed convention and considered the model to fit the data if the CFI or TLI value was 0.090 or greater, the RMSEA value was 0.06 or smaller, and the SRMR was 0.08 or smaller (Hu & Bentler, 1999). We further chose to use these fit indices and abide by these thresholds in accordance with the other previous studies investigating the properties of the SDI:SR translated into another language (e.g., Mumbardó-Adam et al., 2018; Shogren et al., 2024; Xu et al., 2022). If these thresholds of good model fit are not met, researchers often examine the cause through modification indices.

Research Question 2: Measurement Invariance between Gender Groups

In order to compare latent means, measurement invariance must hold across groups. Therefore, in response to Research Question 2, we used the resulting model from Research Question 1 to run a multiple-group CFA for male and female participants. Due to the small number of students who declined to state their gender (n = 14), we excluded these students from the data analysis concerning Research Question 2. Multiple group CFA models allow a single model to be fit to two or more groups. Measurement invariance means that the model applies to the groups in the same way. Configural measurement invariance means that the same factor structure (e.g., one-dimensional versus three-dimensional) holds for both groups. Metric (weak) measurement invariance means that an additional condition is satisfied, namely that the factor loadings ( $\lambda$) are equal across both groups. Scalar (strong) invariance means that metric invariance holds and, in addition, the item-level intercepts ( $\tau$) are equal across both groups. Partial measurement invariance can occur when only some item-level intercepts ( $\tau$) are not the same across groups (Kline, 2011). Strong or partial measurement invariance must hold in order to compare the means of the latent variables (Research Question 3).

Research Question 3: Latent Mean Difference between Gender Groups

To answer Research Question 3, we used multi group CFA models to compare latent means. In order to assess partial or strong invariance, we engaged in an iterative process of comparing model fit with various levels of constraint. First, we fit the model to both groups, and assessed model fit (configural invariance; Hu & Bentler, 1999). Next, we constrained the factor loadings to be equal across both groups (metric invariance) and performed a ${\chi }^2$ difference test between the freely estimated and constrained models (Kline, 2011). Finally, we constrained factor loadings and item level intercepts to be equal across both groups (scalar invariance) and performed another ${\chi }^2$ difference test between the metric invariant and scalar invariant models. Once measurement invariance was established, we compared the latent means across groups.

Research Questions 4 and 5: Measurement Invariance and Latent Mean Difference between Support Groups

For research questions 4 and 5, the same procedures were applied as in research questions 2 and 3 to determine the measurement invariance and difference in latent means based on the level of support. Because very few students reported needing either the lowest or the highest levels of support, we created new support level groups in the following way: no or a little support needed; and a lot of support needed or support needed all of the time. For the small number of students with missing data, they were excluded from this analysis. Therefore, measurement invariance and latent mean comparison was performed between these two groups.

Factor Structure of the SDI:SR Japanese

As Causal Agency Theory suggests that self-determination has three essential characteristics (volitional action, agentic action, and action-control beliefs; Shogren et al., 2015), we first fit a three-factor CFA model to the SDI: SR Japanese data. However, due to the very high correlations of these three latent constructs, the model resulted in the covariance matrix being not positive definite. We achieved similar results when we ran a higher-order model with the same three latent variables as lower-order constructs. These results reflect past research on the English and Chinese versions of the SDI:SR (Shogren et al., 2019; Shogren et al., 2024; Xu et al., 2022). Thus, we fit a one factor (self-determination) CFA model and achieved good model fit according to all fit indices (CFI = .909; TLI = 0.900; RMSEA = 0.068; SRMR = 0.052; ${\chi }^2$ = 412.466, df = 189, p < 0.01). The standardized factor loadings ( $\lambda$) ranged from 0.437-0.799 and were all statistically significant (p < 0.001). Since each indicator in our model loads onto the same latent variable (self-determination), these standardized factor loadings can be interpreted as correlations. See Table 1 for a list of item level means and factor loadings.

Table 1A List of Item Level Means and Factor Loading for Factor Structure of the SDI:SR Japanese

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Measurement Invariance across Gender Groups

The same unidimensional model was fit for both male and female participants. The model fit was acceptable, and therefore configural measurement invariance was achieved. Next, the same model was fit to both male and female groups after constraining the factor loadings ( $\lambda$) to equality. Similarly, we achieved good model fit with minimal changes in Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and the ${\chi }^2$ test of difference between the two models was nonsignificant. Therefore, metric invariance was achieved. However, when all factor loading ( $\lambda$) and item level intercepts ( $\tau$) were constrained to equality, the model fit was adequate, but the ${\chi }^2$ test of difference was significant, and we could not conclude full scalar invariance. Next, we systematically investigated items that had highly varying means across both groups. In analyzing intercept constraints, items 2 and 19 stood out because they had the highest score test values and the lowest p-values. Specifically, item 2 had a score test value of 11.602 with a p-value of 0.001, and item 19 had a score test value of 9.193 with a p-value of 0.002. In contrast, the p-values for all other items were above 0.08. Therefore, we allowed the intercepts for items 2 and 19 to be freely estimated across groups, and we achieved partial measurement invariance. See Table 2 for a complete list of fit statistics for invariance testing.

Table 2Gender Group Measurement Invariance Testing Fit Statistics

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Latent Mean Difference across Gender Groups

After achieving partial measurement invariance, we were able to compare the latent mean of self-determination in males and females in this sample. In order to do this, we fixed the latent mean of the comparison group (females) to zero. We estimated that, on average, the mean level of self-determination for males is 0.159 standard deviations higher than for females. However, this difference in latent means across gender groups was not significant (p = 0.588).

Measurement Invariance across the Level of Support Groups

Similarly, we fit the same measurement model for both support groups: (1) a little or no support needed and (2) a lot or all of the support needed. We achieved configural measurement invariance and metric measurement invariance. Finally, we constrained all factor loadings and item level intercepts to equality and compared model fit with the metric invariant measurement model. Therefore, scalar metric invariance was achieved across the level of support groups. See Table 3 for a complete list of fit statistics for invariance testing.

Table 3Support Group Measurement Invariance Testing Fit Statistics

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Latent Mean Variance across Support Level Groups

After achieving strong measurement invariance, we set the latent mean of the comparison group (little to no support needed) to zero. We found that, on average, the mean for the group that needed more support was estimated to be 0.097 standard deviations lower than the mean for those who need less support. However, this difference was also not significant (p = 0.528).

Factor Structure

Since we found such high correlations between the three self-determined actions as proposed by Causal Agency Theory, a unidimensional factor structure provided the best model fit for the SDI:SR Japanese. While all factor loadings were statistically significant, three had lower standardized factor loadings than others: item 4, “I know what I do best”; item 5, “I plan weekend activities I like to do”; and item 18, “I can come up with ways to make my room more comfortable.”It is possible that youth with intellectual disability in Japan perceive these items differently than they were intended. For example, most Japanese youth may not have the opportunity to make decisions about their rooms due to limited space in the house or because parents’ preferences are prioritized over the home’s design. Although the translation of this item accounted for this cultural context, the high school students in this study may have felt that providing input was not an option for them or may not have even considered making suggestions. Additionally, Japanese youth may feel that weekend plans are a collaborative/familial decision, leading them assume that it is not entirely up to them to initiate their choices and preferences (Musashi & Mizuuchi, 2009).

Furthermore, Japanese people, in general, are not accustomed to thinking about or expressing what they excel at, regardless of whether they have a disability. One of the factors may be that the education system places greater emphasis on compliance than on self-expression, with students who meet adult-defined expectations of being “good students” regarded as successful. This dynamic is especially true and prevalent in education of students with intellectual disability. Future research should further explore these findings, particularly with a larger Japanese population of students with intellectual disability to gain a greater clarity on the validity of these items and determine if the items are detecting differences in opportunities or need to be culturally adapted to reflect the Japanese context and ways that self-determination is expressed.

Additionally, future research should collect data on students without intellectual disability and with other disabilities in Japan to explore how the assessment functions in other populations in Japan, enabling comparisons across different groups of students. Additionally, ongoing work should consider doing focus group interviews with a diverse representation of students with and without disabilities to explore students’ interpretations and impressions of each item. This approach would help support the refinement of the SDI:SR Japanese translation to better align with Japanese cultural contexts. Understanding how students interpret the items is also valuable for teachers, as it highlights that each child perceives and expresses self-determination differently. Teachers can use this insight to tailor self-determination instruction more effectively, using the SDI:SR as a starting point.

Measurement Invariance

We were not able to achieve full scalar (strong) invariance across gender groups. Instead, partial measurement invariance was achieved by freeing two item level intercepts. These items were item 2 (“I think of more than one way to solve a problem”) and 19 (“I take action when new opportunities come my way”). Therefore, the expected value of each of these items is influenced by the respondent’s gender. Although ongoing work is necessary, particularly recruiting more female students with intellectual disability to achieve a sample size reflective of the recent gender ratio among people with intellectual disability in Japan (42.3% female and 57.7% male; Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, n.d.), this suggests there may be impacts of gender on SDI:SR items in Japan. While previous research has established measurement invariance across genders, there have been mixed findings on the impact of gender on overall self-determination. For instance, Shogren et al. (2018b) found no significant latent differences on the SDI:SR between female and male respondents. In contrast, Hagiwara et al. (2021) reported that females consistently scored higher than males on the SDI: Adult Report, which contains of the same items as the SDI:SR but includes demographic questions tailored for adults aged 18 and older. Future research should target larger numbers of female participants to explore how gender, intellectual disability, Japanese cultural factors impact self-determination in Japan, particularly exploring if gender differences are more common on specific items or overall self-determination. Insights from such research could guide teachers and school professionals in supporting the assessment of self-determination within the school context in Japan.

We were able to achieve strong (scalar) measurement invariance across support needs groups suggesting that SDI:SR Japanese items are not dependent on the student’s self-reported level of support. This is a promising finding for the validity of the measure and also suggests that students who need more support may be able to engage with the SDI: SR Japanese in similar ways as others who need less support. However, ongoing research will be needed with students with intellectual disability who require significant support to engage with the SDI:SR to promote accessibility.

Latent Mean Comparison

We did not find significant differences in latent self-determination means based on gender or the level of support; however, there were patterns of differences that may not have been significant because of the sample size, warranting future research. For example, the finding that males scored 0.159 standard deviations higher than for females deserves future exploration, particularly given consistencies with other research findings (Shogren et al., 2018a) as well as the need to free items across the genders at the measurement level. Further, ongoing work is needed to explore the impact of support needs on self-determination, while previous research has compared groups with and without disabilities (Mumbardó-Adam et al., 2018a; Shogren et al., 2024; Xu et al., 2022), limited research has explored differences within sample of students with intellectual disability.

Further research should use standardized measures of support needs as well as ensure a range of support needs are represented in the sample of participants with intellectual disability. This is particularly important as historically, people who need more support in their daily lives tend to experience more restrictive life and school environments; thus, they do not have as many opportunities to engage in and practice self-determination related skills and abilities (Shogren et al., 2018b). While students in this sample who reported needing more support did not have a significantly different level of self-determination than those who reported needing less support this may be due to the fact that our sample all attended the high school which provided career-centered education with a focus on self-determination. Alternatively, as career pathways and job types after high school are often predetermined based on having intellectual disability, it may be that support needs may not be considered in identifying these pathways and in supporting self-determination. Either way, ongoing research is needed to inform supports and expectations for self-determined career pathways.

Limitations

This study had several limitations which must be kept in mind when considering the findings. First, all students attended the same high school. This uneven distribution could have impacted our findings, especially when comparing gender groups. In addition, any students who did not disclose their gender or report their support needs were excluded from group comparisons. Similarly, most students reported that they needed no or a little support throughout the day, while only about a quarter of the students reported that they needed a lot of support or support all of the time. Again, the discrepancy in group size may have lowered the power in one group, making it harder to detect departures from measurement invariance and/or detect differences in the means of the latent variable, which may have distorted our interpretations from our group comparison. In order to get a better understanding of the self-determination of students with intellectual disability in Japan, future research should include students educated in a greater variety of settings, gender sample reflective of the national ratio, and better representation across levels of support needed. Second, the school already recognized the importance of promoting career awareness and development which is closely linked to self-determination and was interested in the SDI:SR as an assessment of their progress. Therefore, it is important to recruit other schools employing a variety of school-wide initiatives across regions in Japan and see how such initiatives could influence the status of student self-determination.

Third, we did not achieve full scalar invariance between the gender groups. Therefore, since our model was only partially invariant, we cannot have full confidence in the observed differences between latent means. Future research should further investigate the relationship between gender and self-reported levels of self-determination.

Fourth, we only focused on students with intellectual disability given the organization of education for students with intellectual disability in Japan and the critical need for research in this area. However, future work should examine self-determination in students without disabilities to allow for comparisons in the Japanese context. Finally, as this study focused on the preliminary validation of the Japanese translation of the SDI:SR with students with intellectual disability, the aim was not to conduct a cross-cultural analysis, although previous translation validation studies were referenced. Future research should consider comparisons with validated data from other language translations of the SDI:SR.